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Published online February 7, 2007
Diabetes 56:1403-1409, 2007
DOI: 10.2337/db06-1230
© 2007 by the American Diabetes Association
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Ca2+/Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase Kinase-{alpha} Regulates Skeletal Muscle Glucose Uptake Independent of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase and Akt Activation

Carol A. Witczak, Nobuharu Fujii, Michael F. Hirshman, and Laurie J. Goodyear

From the Research Division, Joslin Diabetes Center; Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital; and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts

Address correspondence and reprint requests to Laurie J. Goodyear, Metabolism Section, Joslin Diabetes Center, Research Division, One Joslin Place, Boston, MA, 02215. E-mail: laurie.goodyear{at}joslin.harvard.edu

Abbreviations: ACC, acetyl-CoA carboxylase; AICAR, 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-ß-D-ribofuranotide; AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; CaMK, Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase; CaMKK, CaMK kinase; KRB, Krebs-Ringer bicarbonate; PAS, phospho-AS160


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Studies in nonmuscle cells have demonstrated that Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinases (CaMKKs) are upstream regulators of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and Akt. In skeletal muscle, activation of AMPK and Akt has been implicated in the regulation of glucose uptake. The objective of this study was to determine whether CaMKK{alpha} regulates skeletal muscle glucose uptake, and whether it is dependent on AMPK and/or Akt activation. Expression vectors containing constitutively active CaMKK{alpha} (caCaMKK{alpha}) or empty vector were transfected into mouse muscles by in vivo electroporation. After 2 weeks, caCaMKK{alpha} was robustly expressed and increased CaMKI (Thr177/180) phosphorylation, a known CaMKK substrate. In muscles from wild-type mice, caCaMKK{alpha} increased in vivo [3H]-2-deoxyglucose uptake 2.5-fold and AMPK{alpha}1 and -{alpha}2 activities 2.5-fold. However, in muscles from AMPK{alpha}2 inactive mice (AMPK{alpha}2i), caCaMKK{alpha} did not increase AMPK{alpha}1 or -{alpha}2 activities, but it did increase glucose uptake 2.5-fold, demonstrating that caCaMKK{alpha} stimulates glucose uptake independent of AMPK. Akt (Thr308) phosphorylation was not altered by CaMKK{alpha}, and caCaMKK{alpha} plus insulin stimulation did not increase the insulin-induced phosphorylation of Akt (Thr308). These results suggest that caCaMKK{alpha} stimulates glucose uptake via insulin-independent signaling mechanisms. To assess the role of CaMKK in contraction-stimulated glucose uptake, isolated muscles were treated with or without the CaMKK inhibitor STO-609 and then electrically stimulated to contract. Contraction increased glucose uptake 3.5-fold in muscles from both wild-type and AMPK{alpha}2i mice, but STO-609 significantly decreased glucose uptake (~24%) only in AMPK{alpha}2i mice. Collectively, these results implicate CaMKK{alpha} in the regulation of skeletal muscle glucose uptake independent of AMPK and Akt activation.

In the U.S., 90–95% of all diagnosed cases of diabetes are classified as type 2 diabetes (1), a form of diabetes where target tissues such as skeletal muscle do not respond properly to insulin. In these patients, insulin-dependent signaling mechanisms regulating skeletal muscle glucose uptake are impaired (2). Importantly, insulin-independent mechanisms, including muscle contraction or exercise-mediated mechanisms for regulating glucose uptake, remain intact (3). Thus, elucidation of the signaling pathways governing contraction-induced increases in skeletal muscle glucose uptake may provide new pharmacological targets for the treatment of individuals with type 2 diabetes.

Muscle contraction is a multifactorial process involving changes in energy status (i.e., increased AMP-to-ATP ratio), increases in intracellular Ca2+ levels, stretch, etc., and it is likely that multiple signaling pathways act to increase plasma membrane GLUT4 transporters and glucose uptake. Studies using the AMP analog, 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-ß-D-ribofuranotide (AICAR), have demonstrated that activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is positively correlated with an increase in muscle glucose uptake (4–6). However, data obtained from AMPK transgenic and knockout mice have shown that inhibition of AMPK has little to no inhibitory effects on contraction-induced glucose uptake (6–8). In contrast, ablation of the AMPK kinase, LKB1, in skeletal muscle resulted in a 30–40% inhibition of contraction-stimulated glucose uptake (9). Although LKB1 is an upstream regulator of AMPK, only inhibition of LKB1 and not AMPK had a significant impact on contraction-induced glucose uptake. Thus, the role of LKB1-AMPK signaling in the regulation of contraction-stimulated skeletal muscle glucose uptake is still not fully understood.

The variable results obtained from LKB1 and AMPK transgenic mice have suggested that there may be multiple signaling pathways regulating contraction-induced glucose uptake. Evidence has now implicated increases in intracellular Ca2+ levels (10), and Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases (CaMKs) (11–13), in this process. Incubation of rat epitrochlearis muscles with the Ca2+/calmodulin competitive inhibitor KN-93, 2-[N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-N-(4-methoxybenzenesulfonyl)]amino-N-(4-chlorocinnamyl)-N-methylbenzylamine, inhibited glucose uptake in response to caffeine and muscle contraction (11), suggesting a role for CaMK signaling in the regulation of glucose uptake. Importantly, AMPK phosphorylation was not affected in that study (11), suggesting that CaMKs regulate glucose uptake independent of AMPK signaling. Although these data provide insight into the possible regulation of contraction-stimulated glucose uptake by CaMKs, the specificity of KN inhibitors has been questioned because these compounds also inhibit insulin-stimulated glucose uptake (12,13).

Recent evidence in nonmuscle cultured cells has demonstrated that the CaMK kinases (CaMKKs), CaMKK{alpha} and CaMKKß, are upstream regulators of AMPK in mammalian cells (14–17). Although it has been suggested that CaMKKß is the most functionally relevant CaMKK for the activation of AMPK (14,16), those studies were conducted in nonmuscle cells, and the relative importance of the different isoforms may not hold true for skeletal muscle. Importantly, CaMKKß protein was not detected in rodent skeletal muscle (18). Thus, this study was designed to determine the role of CaMKK{alpha} in the regulation of skeletal muscle glucose uptake.


   RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Experiments were performed in accordance with the institutional animal care and use committee of the Joslin Diabetes Center as well as the National Institutes of Health guidelines for the care and use of laboratory animals. Mice were housed in cages at 21°C with a 12-h light/dark cycle. LabDiet rodent chow (Purina, St. Louis, MO) and water were available ad libitum. Male and female ICR mice (6–8 weeks) were obtained from Taconic (Germantown, NY) or Charles River Laboratories (Wilmington, MA). Male and female muscle-specific AMPK{alpha}2 inactive (AMPK{alpha}2i) mice and their wild-type littermates (FVB background, 12–16 weeks) were generated as previously described, and a description of their phenotype has recently been published (6).

Transfection of plasmid DNA using in vivo electroporation.
Vectors encoding CaMKK{alpha} (amino acids 1–434) and the empty vector (pCS2+) were generously donated by Thomas R. Soderling (Vollum Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR) (19). Plasmid DNA injections and in vivo electroporation were performed using a method adapted from Aihara and Miyazaki (20–22). Plasmid DNA (100 µg) for CaMKK{alpha} was injected into the tibialis anterior muscle of one leg, and empty vector DNA was injected into the contralateral leg. Needle electrodes were inserted 5 mm apart, and muscles were stimulated eight times (parameters: train rate = 1 train/s, train duration = 500 ms, pulse rate = 1 pulse/s, duration = 20 ms, volts = 100 V) with a stimulator (model S88; Grass Instruments, Quincy, MA). Mice were allowed 2 weeks to express the plasmid. In a previous study performed in our laboratory, this procedure resulted in >85% of skeletal muscle fibers expressing exogenous protein (21).

Measurement of skeletal muscle [3H]-2-deoxyglucose uptake in vivo.
Skeletal muscle glucose uptake was measured in vivo as previously described (23). Mice were fasted overnight and anesthetized with nembutal sodium (100 mg/kg i.p.). After 30 min, 25 µl of blood was taken from the tail to assess basal glucose and background radioactivity. A bolus of 0.9% NaCl and [3H]-2-deoxyglucose (0.33 µCi [3H]/g body wt, retro-orbital) was administered, and blood samples were taken 5, 10, 15, 25, 35, and 45 min later for glucose and [3H]-2-deoxyglucose measurements. Mice were killed by cervical dislocation and muscles frozen in liquid nitrogen. Accumulation of muscle radioactivity was assessed using a perchloric acid precipitation procedure modified from Ferre et al. (24), and the rate of glucose uptake was calculated as previously described (22).

In vivo insulin stimulation.
Mice were fasted overnight and anesthetized with nembutal sodium for 30 min. Blood (25 µl) was taken from the tail to assess basal glucose levels. A bolus of 0.9% NaCl or 20% glucose (1 mg glucose/g body wt, retro-orbital) was administered and a blood sample taken 10 min later to assess glucose levels. Mice were killed by cervical dislocation and muscles frozen in liquid nitrogen.

Tissue processing and immunoblot analysis.
Frozen muscle homogenates not used for uptake measurements were mixed with 1% Nonidet P-40, rotated end-over-end at 4°C for 1 h, and centrifuged at 14,000g for 30 min. Protein concentrations were determined via the Bradford assay. Immunoblots were performed by standard methods (25). Primary antibodies were obtained from the following sources: phospho-AMPK (Thr172) and phospho-AS160 (PAS; Thr642) from Biosource International (Camarillo, CA), CaMKK from BD Transduction Laboratories (Franklin Lakes, NJ), phospho-Akt (Thr308) and PAS (Ser318, Ser341, Ser570, Ser588, Thr642, and Ser751) from Cell Signaling Technology (Beverly, MA), GLUT1 and GLUT4 from Chemicon International (Temecula, CA), and Akt1/2 and AS160 from Upstate Biotechnology (Lake Placid, NY). The phospho-CaMKI (Thr177/180) antibody was generated as previously described (26) and generously donated by Dr. Naohito Nozaki (Kanagawa Dental College, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan).

Calmodulin affinity precipitation assay.
Calmodulin affinity precipitation experiments were performed using procedures adapted from Rose et al. (27). Muscle lysates containing caCaMKK{alpha} (200 µg) were diluted in precipitation buffer containing (in mmol/l): 50 Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 1 EGTA, pH 8.0, 5 Na4PO7, 2 dithiothreitol, 0.1 benzamidine, 0.5 phenylsulfonyl fluoride, 0.003 soybean trypsin inhibitor, and 0.009 leupeptin in the presence or absence of 2 mmol/l CaCl2 (~1 mmol/l Ca2+). Calmodulin-agarose (20 µl, no. 14–426; Upstate Biotechnology) was added and samples rotated end-over-end at 4°C overnight. The supernatant was removed, and pellets washed four times in precipitation buffer. Laemmli's sample buffer was added and samples boiled at 95°C for 5 min. Calmodulin-affinity precipitates were diluted in double-distilled H2O. Lysate (20 µg) was directly analyzed by immunoblot.

Isoform-specific AMPK assays.
Isoform specific AMPK activity assays were performed as previously described (5,6). Muscle lysates (200 µg) were immunoprecipitated with antibodies generated against the AMPK{alpha}1 and -{alpha}2 subunits (28) and protein A beads. The kinase reaction was carried out in buffer containing (in mmol/l): 40 HEPES, pH 7.0, 80 NaCl, 5 MgCl2, 0.1 synthetic SAMS peptide (HMRSAMSGLHLVKRR), 0.2 AMP, 0.8 dithiothreitol, and 0.2 ATP (2 µCi of [{gamma}-32P]ATP) for 20 min at 30°C. Reaction products were spotted on Whatman P81 filter paper and washed 5 x 30 min in 0.1% phosphoric acid, and 10 min in acetone. Radioactivity was assessed by liquid scintillation counting of the [32P] label. AMPK activity was assessed by the incorporation of [{gamma}-32P] into the SAMS peptide.

Muscle incubations and measurement of muscle [3H]-2-deoxyglucose uptake ex vivo.
Ex vivo muscle incubation experiments were performed as previously described (6,29). Mice were fasted overnight and killed by cervical dislocation. For contraction experiments, isolated extensor digitorum longus muscles were placed in Krebs-Ringer bicarbonate (KRB) buffer containing (in mmol/l) 117 NaCl, 4.7 KCl, 2.5 CaCl2 · 2 H2O, 1.2 KH2PO4, 1.2 MgSO4 · 7 H2O, and 24.6 NaHCO3 supplemented with 2 mmol/l pyruvic acid and either DMSO (0.1%) or the CaMKK inhibitor STO-609 (1.0 µg/ml; Calbiochem, LA Jolla, CA) for 60 min. Optimal muscle length was determined for each muscle just before the 10-min tetanic contraction (parameters: train rate = 1/min, train duration = 10/s, pulse rate = 100 pulses/s, duration = 0.1 ms, and volts = 100 V). Force production was monitored using an isometric force transducer (Kent Scientific, Litchfield, CT), and the converted digital signal was captured by a data acquisition system (iWorx114; CB Sciences, Dover, NH) and analyzed with software (Labscribe; CB Sciences). For insulin experiments, soleus muscles were placed in KRB buffer supplemented with pyruvic acid and either DMSO or STO-609 for 50 min, before the addition of insulin (50 mU/ml) for 20 min.

For glucose uptake, muscles were incubated in KRB buffer containing 1.5 µCi/ml [3H]-2-deoxyglucose, 1 mmol/l deoxyglucose, 0.45 µCi/ml [14C]-mannitol, 7 mmol/l cold-mannitol, and the appropriate amount of DMSO, STO-609, and/or insulin. Muscles were frozen in liquid nitrogen, solubilized in 1N NaOH at 80°C, and neutralized with 1 N HCl. Samples were centrifuged at 11,000g for 1 min. Aliquots (350 µl) were removed for scintillation counting of the dual [3H] and [14C] labels, and the accumulation of [3H]-2-deoxyglucose was calculated after adjusting for extracellular space.

Statistical analysis.
Data are the mean ± SE of the mean. Statistical significance was defined as P < 0.05 and determined by Student's t tests or two-way ANOVA and Student-Newman-Keuls post hoc analysis. The number of muscles used to determine statistical significance is indicated in the text or figure legends.


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
caCaMKK{alpha} increases CaMKI (Thr177/180) phosphorylation in skeletal muscle.
Endogenous mouse CaMKK{alpha} is a 505–amino acid, 68-kDa protein. Truncation of the COOH-terminal 71 amino acids eliminates the autoinhibitory and calmodulin-binding domains, resulting in a constitutively active form of CaMKK{alpha} (caCaMKK{alpha}) that is Ca2+/calmodulin independent (30). In skeletal muscle, CaMKK{alpha} protein is detected at ~68 kDa (Fig. 1A). Expression of caCaMKK{alpha} into mouse muscle resulted in robust expression of the ~52 kDa protein (21.6 ± 2.5-fold) compared with endogenous CaMKK{alpha}. There was a slight (~15%), but nonsignificant, increase in CaMKK{alpha} protein levels after caCaMKK{alpha} expression. To confirm that the transfection procedure resulted in the expression of active caCaMKK{alpha}, the phosphorylation of an established CaMKK{alpha} substrate, CaMKI, was examined. CaMKIV is also a CaMKK substrate; however, CaMKIV protein is not expressed in mouse skeletal muscle (31). caCaMKK{alpha} expression resulted in an approximately twofold increase in the phosphorylation of three bands detected by the phospho-CaMKI (Thr177/180) antibody, all of which fall within the predicted molecular weight range for CaMKI (i.e., 37–43 kDa) (Fig. 1B). These results are consistent with studies that have detected mRNA for CaMKI{alpha} (32), CaMKIß (33), and CaMKI{delta} (34) in skeletal muscle. However, a recent study suggested that skeletal muscle does not contain detectable levels of CaMKI protein (27). Thus, to confirm that the bands detected by the phospho-CaMKI antibody are indeed calmodulin binding proteins, muscle lysates were subjected to calmodulin affinity precipitation. As shown in Fig. 1C, all three bands detected by the phospho-CaMKI antibody bind calmodulin in the presence of ~1 mmol/l Ca2+, providing further evidence that CaMKI protein is expressed in mouse skeletal muscle.


Figure 1
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  		FIG. 1. caCaMKK{alpha} (CA) expression increases CaMKI (Thr177/180) phosphorylation. A: Representative immunoblots are shown for endogenous CaMKK{alpha} and exogenous, truncated caCaMKK{alpha} (caCaMKK{alpha}). B: Representative immunoblots and quantification of CaMKI (Thr177/180) phosphorylation. C: Calmodulin affinity precipitation (CaM-AP) experiments verified that the three bands detected by the phospho-CaMKI antibody are calmodulin binding proteins. Data are the means ± SE, n = 10 muscles per group. *Statistically significant versus empty vector (EV). CaM, calmodulin; DIR, directly analyzed by immunoblot; IB, immunoblot; p-CaMKI, phosphorylated CaMKI; SUP, supernatant.

 
caCaMKK{alpha} increases AMPK (Thr172) but not Akt (Thr308) phosphorylation.
Studies from nonmuscle cell culture models have suggested that CaMKKs act as upstream regulators of AMPK (14–17) and Akt (35) in mammalian cells. To assess whether CaMKK{alpha} regulates AMPK and/or Akt in skeletal muscle, immunoblots for AMPK (Thr172) and Akt (Thr308) phosphorylation were performed on muscles expressing caCaMKK{alpha}. As shown in Fig. 2, caCaMKK{alpha} increased AMPK (Thr172) phosphorylation approximation twofold but did not increase Akt (Thr308) phosphorylation.


Figure 2
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  		FIG. 2. caCaMKK{alpha} (CA) expression increases AMPK (Thr172), but not Akt (Thr308) phosphorylation. Representative immunoblots and quantification for AMPK (Thr172) and Akt (Thr308) phosphorylation. Data are the means ± SE, n = 7–10 muscles per group. *Statistically significant versus empty vector (EV). p-Akt, phosphorylated Akt; p-AMPK, phosphorylated AMPK.

 
caCaMKK{alpha} stimulates skeletal muscle glucose uptake independent of AMPK.
Numerous studies have shown that activation of AMPK by AICAR stimulates skeletal muscle glucose uptake (4–6). To determine whether caCaMKK{alpha} stimulates glucose uptake, and whether it is dependent on AMPK activation, muscles from wild-type and transgenic mice expressing an inactive form of the AMPK{alpha}2 subunit (AMPK{alpha}2i) were transfected with caCaMKK{alpha}, and [3H]-2-deoxyglucose uptake assessed in vivo without additional stimulation. Muscle glucose uptake was increased ~2.5-fold in both wild-type mice and AMPK{alpha}2i mice after caCaMKK{alpha} expression (Fig. 3). CaMKI (Thr177/180) phosphorylation was increased to a similar extent in both wild-type (empty vector, 1.0 ± 0.05, caCaMKK{alpha} 2.1 ± 0.09, n = 6) and AMPK{alpha}2i mice (1.13 ± 0.12, 1.84 ± 0.18, n = 4). To confirm that AMPK activity was not increased by caCaMKK{alpha} in the AMPK{alpha}2i mice, kinase activity assays were performed. In wild-type mice, caCaMKK{alpha} increased AMPK{alpha}1 and -{alpha}2 activities ~2.5-fold (Fig. 4A). In contrast, in AMPK{alpha}2i mice caCaMKK{alpha} did not increase either AMPK{alpha}1 or -{alpha}2 activities (Fig. 4A), demonstrating that caCaMKK{alpha} can stimulate glucose uptake independent of AMPK.


Figure 3
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  		FIG. 3. caCaMKK{alpha} (CA) increases in vivo muscle glucose uptake in both wild-type and AMPK{alpha}2 inactive mice (AMPK{alpha}2i). In vivo [3H]-2-deoxyglucose uptake in muscles from wild-type and AMPK{alpha}2i mice is shown. Data are the means ± SE, n = 6–8 muscles per group. *Statistically significant versus empty vector (EV).

 

Figure 4
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  		FIG. 4. caCaMKK{alpha} (CA) expression increases AMPK{alpha}1 and -{alpha}2 activities only in wild-type mice. A: caCaMKK{alpha} expression increased AMPK{alpha}1 (left) and AMPK{alpha}2 activities (right) 2.5-fold in wild-type, but not in AMPK{alpha}2 inactive (AMPK{alpha}2i) mice. B: AS160 (PAS) phosphorylation was increased (P = 0.06) by expression of caCaMKK{alpha} only in wild-type mice. All data are the means ± SE, n = 4–6 muscles per group. *Statistically significant versus empty vector (EV); #statistically significant versus wild-type. p-AS160, phosphorylated AS160.

 
AS160 is a recently discovered protein that regulates insulin-stimulated GLUT4 translocation in L6 cells (36), and it is phosphorylated in response to both insulin and contraction in skeletal muscle (29,37). Recent evidence from our lab has shown that AMPK phosphorylates AS160 on phospho-Akt substrate (PAS) sites in response to AICAR and contraction in skeletal muscle (29). As shown in Fig. 4B, caCaMKK{alpha} increased AS160 (PAS) phosphorylation ~60% (P = 0.06) in muscles from wild-type but not AMPK{alpha}2i mice. Collectively, these results demonstrate that caCaMKK{alpha} can activate skeletal muscle glucose uptake independent of the activation of AMPK and the phosphorylation of AS160 (PAS).

caCaMKK{alpha} and in vivo insulin stimulation increase AS160 (PAS) phosphorylation.
Although our initial experiments demonstrated that caCaMKK{alpha} does not increase Akt (Thr308) phosphorylation (Fig. 2), it was important to determine whether caCaMKK{alpha} alters the insulin-induced phosphorylation of Akt and/or AS160. For these experiments, mice were injected with glucose to elicit a physiological insulin response, and muscles were taken 15 min later for immunoblot analysis. In vivo insulin stimulation increased Akt (Thr308) and AS160 (Thr642) phosphorylation, and caCaMKK{alpha} expression did not enhance this insulin-induced phosphorylation of Akt or AS160 (Thr642) (Fig. 5). caCaMKK{alpha} increased AMPK (Thr172) phosphorylation, and in vivo insulin stimulation had no additional effect on AMPK (Fig. 5). The combination of caCaMKK{alpha} and in vivo insulin enhanced AS160 (PAS) phosphorylation above that elicited by either treatment alone (Fig. 5), consistent with previous studies suggesting convergence of Akt- and AMPK-dependent phosphorylation on AS160 (PAS) residues (29).


Figure 5
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  		FIG. 5. caCaMKK{alpha} (CA) expression and in vivo insulin effects on Akt (Thr308), AS160 (Thr642), AMPK (Thr172), and AS160 (PAS) phosphorylation. Representative immunoblots and quantification. All data are the means ± SE, n = 5–6 muscles per group. *Statistically significant versus empty vector (EV); #statistically significant versus sham. p-Akt, phosphorylated Akt; p-AMPK, phosphorylated AMPK; p-AS160, phosphorylated AS160.

 
To evaluate the possibility that caCaMKK{alpha} alters the expression of proteins involved in regulating glucose uptake, immunoblot analyses were performed to examine AMPK, Akt, AS160, GLUT1, and GLUT4 protein levels. Expression of caCaMKK{alpha} did not alter the protein expression of AMPK, Akt, AS160, GLUT1, or GLUT4 (supplementary Fig. 1, which can be found in an online appendix [available at http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db06-1230]).

CaMKK inhibitor STO-609 and skeletal muscle glucose uptake.
To determine whether CaMKK signaling regulates contraction-stimulated glucose uptake, isolated muscles were treated with or without the CaMKK inhibitor STO-609 (1.0 µg/ml) and then electrically stimulated to contract. As shown in Fig. 6A, STO-609 slightly inhibited contraction-induced glucose uptake in muscles from wild-type mice, but this was not statistically significant. In muscles from AMPK{alpha}2i mice, contraction-induced glucose uptake was significantly decreased (~24%) by STO-609. STO-609 had no effect on muscle force production (Fig. 6B). To assess whether STO-609 elicits nonspecific effects on glucose uptake, insulin-induced glucose uptake was examined. STO-609 had a slight, but nonsignificant, effect on insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in both wild-type and AMPK{alpha}2i mice (Fig. 6C). Collectively, these results suggest that CaMKK-dependent signaling is involved in the regulation of contraction-stimulated muscle glucose uptake.


Figure 6
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  		FIG. 6. STO-609 inhibited contraction-stimulated skeletal muscle glucose uptake only in AMPK{alpha}2 inactive mice. A: Ex vivo contraction-induced [3H]-2-deoxyglucose uptake was assessed in extensor digitorum longus muscles from wild-type and AMPK{alpha}2 inactive (AMPK{alpha}2i) mice treated with or without STO-609 (1 µg/ml). B: Force production during the contraction. C: Ex vivo insulin-induced [3H]-2-deoxyglucose uptake was assessed in soleus muscles from wild-type and AMPK{alpha}2i mice treated with or without STO-609. All data are the means ± SE. For contraction experiments, n = 7–9 muscles for basal and contraction groups. For insulin experiments, n = 6–12 muscles for basal groups and n = 11–13 for insulin-treated groups. *Statistically significant versus empty vector (EV); #statistically significant versus DMSO; $statistically significant versus wild-type. Con, contraction; Ins, insulin.

 
In vitro studies have demonstrated that STO-609 (1.0 µg/ml) can directly bind to and inhibit AMPK activity by up to 60% (38). If this also occurs in skeletal muscle in vivo, then treatment with STO-609 should directly inhibit both CaMKK- and AMPK-dependent signaling regardless of possible physiological interactions. To determine whether STO-609 directly inhibits AMPK-dependent signaling in muscle from wild-type mice, we assessed AMPK (Thr172) phosphorylation and the phosphorylation of an established AMPK substrate, acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC; Ser221). STO-609 had no effect on the basal or contraction-induced phosphorylation of AMPK or ACC (Fig. 7). These results demonstrate that STO-609 (1.0 µg/ml) does not directly inhibit AMPK-dependent signaling, providing more evidence for the lack of a decrease in contraction-induced glucose uptake in the muscles from wild-type mice (Fig. 6A).


Figure 7
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  		FIG. 7. STO-609, did not inhibit basal or contraction-stimulated increases in AMPK (Thr172) or ACC (Ser221) phosphorylation. Representative immunoblots and quantification. All data are the means ± SE, n = 6 muscles per group. *Statistically significant versus basal. Con, contraction; p-ACC, phosphorylated ACC; p-AMPK, phosphorylated AMPK.

 

   DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
 
The data presented in this study implicate CaMKK{alpha} in the regulation of contraction-induced skeletal muscle glucose uptake independent of AMPK. These novel data provide new insight into the mechanisms regulating contraction-induced glucose uptake, especially those mediated by Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent signaling.

caCaMKK{alpha} expression increased skeletal muscle glucose uptake independent of changes in AMPK{alpha}1 or -{alpha}2 activity (Figs. 3 and 4). Our results are consistent with data obtained from rat epitrochlearis muscles, in which the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ store releasing agent, caffeine, and the AMPK activator, AICAR, had additive effects on glucose uptake (11). Other evidence for an AMPK-independent regulation of non–insulin-dependent glucose uptake comes from studies using AMPK transgenic and knockout mice, in which inactivation of muscle AMPK signaling had little to no effect on contraction-induced increases in glucose uptake (6–8). Thus, our data provide further in vivo evidence for a Ca2+-dependent, AMPK-independent mechanism that can regulate skeletal muscle glucose uptake.

In muscles from AMPK{alpha}2i mice, caCaMKK{alpha} did not increase AMPK{alpha}1 activity (Fig. 4). This finding was not surprising because the exogenous AMPK{alpha}2i subunit would be expected to replace both the endogenous AMPK{alpha}1 and -{alpha}2 subunits. Consistent with this, AMPK{alpha}1 expression is decreased in muscles from AMPK{alpha}2i mice (6). Because basal AMPK{alpha}1 activity is not decreased in AMPK{alpha}2i mice, this suggests that the AMPK{alpha}1 protein still present in the muscle is already mostly activated and that there is not enough nonactivated AMPK{alpha}1 remaining to detect a significant increase in AMPK{alpha}1 activity in response to caCaMKK{alpha} expression.

Akt (Thr308) phosphorylation was not increased by caCaMKK{alpha} expression, even when Akt phosphorylation was increased by in vivo insulin stimulation (Figs. 2 and 5). This result was surprising because in vitro studies using recombinant proteins, and studies using COS-7 cells, have demonstrated that CaMKK{alpha} can regulate Akt (35). The reason behind the lack of Akt regulation by CaMKK{alpha} in skeletal muscle is currently unknown, although possible explanations include tissue-specific CaMKK{alpha} function, protein localization, and a lack of necessary cofactors. We do not believe that the lack of Akt phosphorylation was caused by inadequate CaMKK{alpha} activity because significant CaMKI and AMPK phosphorylation were detected in our model.

In mouse skeletal muscle, insulin increases AS160 (Thr642) phosphorylation via activation of Akt, whereas contraction increases AS160 (PAS) phosphorylation via activation of AMPK (29). In line with those results, caCaMKK{alpha} expression did not increase AS160 (Thr642) phosphorylation, but it did increase AS160 (PAS) phosphorylation in wild-type mice (Fig. 5). In muscles from AMPK{alpha}2i mice, a change in AS160 (PAS) phosphorylation was not detected, demonstrating that the increased AS160 (PAS) phosphorylation seen in the wild-type mice expressing caCaMKK{alpha} was attributable to AMPK activation (Fig. 4). We did not detect CaMKK{alpha}-dependent, AMPK-independent AS160 phosphorylation.

The role of CaMKK signaling in the regulation of contraction-induced skeletal muscle glucose uptake was directly assessed using the CaMKK inhibitor STO-609. STO-609 was used at 1.0 µg/ml (~2.7 µmol/l), a concentration that inhibits recombinant CaMKK{alpha} and CaMKKß activity by >80% in vitro, with only minor inhibition of CaMKI and -II isoforms (38). Thus, we do not believe that STO-609 is directly inhibiting CaMKI or -II in our study. Interestingly, STO-609 (1.0 µg/ml) directly inhibits AMPK activity by ~60% in vitro (14). To assess this possibility in skeletal muscle in vivo, we examined the phosphorylation of the AMPK substrate ACC (Ser221) (Fig. 7). STO-609 had no effect on basal or contraction-induced ACC (Ser221) phosphorylation, demonstrating that STO-609 was not directly inhibiting AMPK in skeletal muscle in vivo.

We were not able to detect changes in CaMKI (Thr177/180) phosphorylation by immunoblot analysis after ex vivo muscle contraction experiments (data not shown). However, we currently believe that this is because of the complex structural/functional properties of CaMKK{alpha}, CaMKI, and CaMK phosphatase, and not because CaMKK{alpha} and CaMKI are inactive during muscle contraction. Directly assessing CaMKK{alpha} or CaMKI under physiological conditions is extremely challenging because of the lack of Ca2+/calmodulin-independent activity of these enzymes (39,40). Thus, immediately after the removal of a stimulus, and a decline in intracellular Ca2+ levels, CaMKK{alpha} is not able to maintain kinase activity (40) and stops phosphorylating CaMKI. In addition, in vitro studies have shown that CaMKI can be rapidly (≤1 min) dephosphorylated by ≥80% by CaMK phosphatase (41), a phosphatase with a high degree of specificity for the CaMK family (41,42), which is expressed in skeletal muscle (43). Thus, novel techniques will need to be developed to directly examine the possible activation of CaMKK{alpha} or CaMKI by contraction in skeletal muscle.

STO-609 only inhibited contraction-induced glucose uptake in muscles from AMPK{alpha}2i mice (Fig. 6A). This finding is consistent with the hypothesis that contraction-mediated glucose uptake is regulated by multiple redundant pathways and that inhibition of more than one pathway is required to blunt the effect. STO-609 did not completely inhibit contraction-induced glucose uptake in the muscles from AMPK{alpha}2i mice. Thus, there are likely one or more other kinases involved in this process. Of the possible candidates, we cannot exclude a role for CaMKII. Data obtained using the Ca2+/calmodulin competitive inhibitor KN-93 has shown ≥50% inhibition of caffeine- and contraction-induced glucose uptake in rat epitrochlearis muscles (11). However, because KN compounds also inhibit insulin-dependent muscle glucose uptake (12,13), the role of CaMKII in the regulation of both contraction- and insulin-dependent glucose uptake is controversial and warrants further investigation.

During the revision of this manuscript, Jensen et al. (44) reported a role for CaMKK-dependent signaling in the regulation of muscle glucose uptake. However, in contrast to our study, their study suggests that CaMKK regulates glucose uptake via an AMPK-dependent pathway. This aspect of the Jensen et al. study is not supported by our current work showing that caCaMKK{alpha} can increase glucose uptake in the absence of changes in AMPK{alpha}1 or -{alpha}2 activity (Figs. 3 and 4).

In summary, this study is the first to demonstrate that CaMKK{alpha}-dependent signaling regulates skeletal muscle glucose uptake independent of AMPK, Akt, and AS160 (PAS) phosphorylation. In addition, we show that treatment with the CaMKK inhibitor STO-609 significantly decreases contraction-induced glucose uptake in muscles lacking AMPK{alpha}2 activity, consistent with the hypothesis that contraction-mediated glucose uptake is mediated via multiple signaling pathways. Collectively, these novel findings represent a significant step toward the elucidation of the signaling pathways regulating non–insulin-dependent skeletal muscle glucose uptake.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Grants R01AR42238 and R01AR45670 (to L.J.G.), F32AR051663 (to C.A.W.), and T32DK07260-27 (to the Joslin Diabetes Center) and Diabetes Endocrinology Research Grant DK36836.

We thank Thomas R. Soderling for his generous donation of the expression vectors, Dr. Naohito Nozaki for his generous donation of the phospho-specific CaMKI antibody, and Eric S. Silver for technical assistance.


   FOOTNOTES
 
Published ahead of print at http://diabetes.diabetesjournals.org on 7 February 2007. DOI: 10.2337/db06-1230.

Additional information for this article can be found in an online appendix at http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db06-1230.

The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

Received for publication September 2, 2006 and accepted in revised form January 24, 2007


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